Many children die before the race is over either from fear or from being tossed by the animal or being dragged to death after being partially dislodged from the security rope binding the child to the animal.
Thousands of women and children are trafficked to, from and thru Pakistan every year. They are trafficked to Pakistan for the sex industry and as cheap labor in garment factories. Children are also trafficked to Pakistan to labor in the clothing industry and as recently reported in the world media, Pakistani toddlers and young children are sold to middle eastern countries to be camel jockeys and to be used for the black-market human organ transplant industry. This section will discuss what is known about human trafficking to/from and thru Pakistan and will investigate two important elements of Pakistani society and political influence that make this problem extremely dangerous for not only the victims trafficked but also Pakistani women and children in general who are effected as well. In this section, discussion will include the Zina Hudood Ordinance and issues surrounding the US Department of State annual Trafficking Report, which in 2002 gave Pakistan a higher tier rating for supposedly working to improve conditions relative to human trafficking in their country. The information presented in this paper will raise serious doubts whether Pakistan has fulfilled the necessary requirements that denote an improvement in conditions.
There have been one million Bangladeshi and more than two hundred thousand Burmese women trafficked to Karachi, Pakistan.[1] Two hundred thousand Bangladeshi women have been trafficked to Pakistan for the slave trade and prostitution.[2] Two hundred thousand Bangladeshi women were trafficked to Pakistan in the last ten years, continuing at the rate of 200-400 women monthly.[3]
In Pakistan, where most trafficked Bengali women are sold, there are about fifteen hundred Bengali women in jail and about two hundred thousand women and children sold into the slave trade.[4]
India and Pakistan are the main destinations for children under 16 who are trafficked in south Asia.[5] More than 150 women were trafficked to Pakistan every day between 1991 and 1993.[6] One hundred to one hundred and fifty women are estimated to enter Pakistan illegally every day. Few ever return to their homes.[7] There are over 200,000 undocumented Bangladeshi women in Pakistan, including some 2,000 in jails and shelters. Bangladeshis comprise 80 percent, and Burmese 14 percent, of Karachi’s undocumented immigrants.[8]
A Bengali or Burmese woman could be sold in Pakistan for between $1,500 and $2,500 – depending on her age, beauty and whether or not she is a virgin. For each child or woman sold, the police claim a 15 to 20 percent commission.[9] In 1991, women kidnapped at the Pakistan-Afghanistan border were sold in the marketplace for R600 per kilogram. Auctions of girls are arranged for three kinds of buyers: rich visiting Arabs, mostly sheiks and businessmen, rich local citizenry, and to rural farmers.[10] A reported nineteen thousand Pakistani children have been trafficked to the United Arab Emirates. One hundred sixty thousand Nepalese women are in Indian brothels.[11] Orphaned girls are also reportedly sold as ‘wives’ to men who resell them for profits.[12]
Methods and Techniques of Traffickers
Bangladeshi and Burmese women are kidnapped, married off to agents by naive unsuspecting parents, trafficked under false pretenses, or coerced with wonderful stories of a better life, all into the brothels of Pakistan. Border police and other law enforcement agencies are well aware of trafficking through various high use entry points into Pakistan including Lahore, Kasur, Bahawalpur, Chhor and Badin.[13]
Nepalese and Bangladeshi woman and girls are trafficked under false pretenses, with promises of better-paid jobs, and are then forced into prostitution in Pakistani brothels.[14] Since 1994, there has been a significant rise in trafficking of girls, aged 8-15, in Pakistan.[15] Pimps disguised as job agents lure victims from poverty-stricken families. The parents and relatives of the soon-to-be victims are known to spend as much as $145 to $ 450 for agent fees. The girls’ families sell everything the own believing that the money they invest with the agents are for a brighter future. Every month 120 to 150 Bangladeshi women are trafficked into Pakistan and sold to brothels or individuals to be used as prostitutes. The flesh trade is the fastest growing area of international criminal activity in Pakistan, with increased numbers of victims growing daily.
The Route from Bangladesh to Pakistan
Law enforcement authorities and border patrols provide protection to pimps who transport the women, usually first to Dhaka, then to New Delhi and then onto the Indian border and finally into Pakistan. The railway trail starts in Meenapur, Bangladesh and carries on to Calcutta, from where they travel to Delhi, then Amritsar and eventually Pakistan. Once they arrive in Pakistan, the pimps follow the standard route through Lahore down to Karachi, where the market conditions are most profitable for the flesh trade. Dealers bring women into Pakistan as their wives or sisters. Prostitution gangs are organized to the extent that all necessary paperwork in prepared in advance by their partners in Pakistan. Porous borders and lax border guards have made it easy for this trade to flourish. Once in Karachi, the women and children are kept in Bengali paras (slums). They are kept in crowded rooms and deprived of food and clothing. They are forced to do laborious tasks and are beaten if they refuse to cooperate. The pimps then arrange buyers for their commodities. Pimps can make normally make between $ 200 and $230 per sale and can conclude as many as 125 sales a month. A woman’s price tag, depending on her age, beauty, virginity and level of education can start at $1,280 and go as high as $2,400. Particularly attractive women can be sold for as much as Rs. 150,000[16]. Once sold or married off, the women either are forced to work in brothels, or are relegated to a life of domestic slavery.
Burma to Pakistan
Lawyers for Human Rights and Legal Aid (Karachi) visited many Pakistani jails and revealed that a large number of Muslim Burmese women and children fleeing the persecution of the Burmese government, have also come to Pakistan from Bangladesh and many of them are trafficking victims.
Traffickers, recruiters and agents have clear links with politicians and influential people in the trade, as well as with various institutions such as the police, customs, border forces, overseas recruiters, travel agents, transport agents, religious institutions, hospitals and clinics (organ transplant factories), adoption agencies and baby-farms. [17]
Policy and Law
If being forced against their will to be slaves in the sex trade were not enough, trafficked women are further victimized by the police and the legal system, which treat them as criminals. The women who escape their captors and are arrested by the authorities are booked under Pakistan’s Hudood Ordinances. The Zina Ordinance, which is derived from Pakistan’s Islamic Hudood Ordinance, makes adultery or sex outside marriage a crime against the state. Women and girls in prostitution are often charged with Zina. Sometimes, they are booked under the Passport Act. Either way, they spend long periods in local and regional prisons. For those accused of illegal immigration, the sentence is four years, but many women end up serving an additional three to four years in jail, either waiting for trial or to clear up immigration formalities. The latter case would only be possible if a local NGO offers them legal assistance.[18]
The governments of Pakistan in the last 26 years have established three commissions of inquiry into the sexual exploitation of women. However, the government under Bhutto in the seventies, the Zia regime of the eighties and the present government under Musharaff have all disregarded the commission’s recommendations.[19]/[20]
Human Rights
According to the 2003 Human Rights Report on Pakistan (published annually by the US Department of State), “significant numbers of women were subjected to violence, rape, and other forms of abuse by spouses and members of society over the preceding year. Discrimination against women was widespread and traditional social and legal constraints generally kept women in a subordinate position in society. Violence against children, as well as child abuse and prostitution, remained serious problems. Debt slavery persisted, and bonded labor by both adults and children remained a problem. The use of child labor remained widespread.
On August 28, 2002, the Government passed the Prevention and Control of Human Trafficking Ordinance; however, trafficking in women and children for the purposes of prostitution and bonded labor has continued to swell.”[21]
Trafficking Report – US Department of State
According to the 2002 report on Pakistan, released last year, Pakistan was raised from Tier 3 (lowest level) to Tier 2. In this year’s report, Pakistan remained in Tier 2. The US Department of State report noted Pakistan as –
“A country of origin, transit, and destination for women and children trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitation and bonded labor. Internal trafficking of women and girls from rural areas to cities for purposes of sexual exploitation and labor also occurs. Pakistan is a source country for young boys who are trafficked to the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Qatar as camel jockeys. Pakistani men and women travel to the Middle East in search of work and are put into situations of coerced labor, slave-like conditions, and physical abuse. Pakistan is a destination for women and children trafficked from Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia for purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and labor. Women trafficked from East Asian countries and Bangladesh to the Middle East transit through Pakistan.
In October 2002, the government passed a law that criminalizes all aspects of trafficking, from recruitment and transporting to receiving a person. If rape or forced prostitution cases are prosecuted under the Islamic law-oriented Hudood ordinances, victims are reluctant to testify since, the woman’s testimony is tantamount to an admission of adultery if prosecutors conclude that her testimony does not meet the burden of proof. The Federal Investigative Agency (FIA) reports that 11 people have been arrested for trafficking under the new statute and those prosecutions of those individuals are pending.
The government sponsors a variety of shelters and training programs throughout Pakistan that provide medical treatment, limited legal representation, and vocational training. The government provides temporary residence status to foreign trafficking victims, as well as a lawyer on demand. However, without the advocacy of an NGO, victims may be treated as criminals and detained because of their illegal immigration status. Many victims languish in jail for months or years without having their cases heard. On the provincial and local level, the Punjab Ministry for Social Welfare collaborates with approximately 400 NGOs in providing women’s shelters, orphanages, and rehabilitation programs for women and children. In destination countries for Pakistani laborers, embassy officials assist those who have been trafficked or placed in abusive working conditions.” [22]
US-Pakistan Relations – Special Treatment in exchange for cooperation in the fight against Terrorism
When deciding whether a country is designated as Tier 1, 2 or 3 (lowest), determination is made according to whether or not they meet the “minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking” which are noted as follows.[23]
“Governments should prohibit trafficking and punish acts of trafficking; prescribe punishment commensurate with that for grave crimes, such as forcible sexual assault, for the knowing commission of trafficking in some of its most reprehensible forms (trafficking for sexual purposes, involving rape or kidnapping, or that causes a death); prescribe punishment that is sufficiently stringent to deter and that adequately reflects the offense’s heinous nature for the knowing commission of any act of trafficking; and make serious and sustained efforts to eliminate trafficking.”
Countries that are given the grade of Tier 2 are: Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the Act’s minimum standards but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards.[24]
“For the third consecutive year, the State Department report fails to give hard figures on the number of people being trafficked,” said LaShawn R. Jefferson, executive director of the Women’s Rights Division of Human Rights Watch. “The report gives undue credit for minimal effort and ignores government practices, such as summary deportation and incarceration, that effectively punish trafficking victims.”
As noted repeatedly in this paper, serious questions are asked why the US Department of State raised Pakistan’s Tier level from 3 to 2. One speculative answer would be that this move was influenced by Pakistan’s cooperation with the US Bush Administration in their fight against terrorism. If there is any truth to this possibility if raises the final question, “which are worse, suspected terrorists or known victimizers of innocent women and children?”
The Zina Hudood Ordinance (1979)
The Hudood Ordinance criminalizes Zina, which is defined as extra-marital sex including adultery and/or fornication. It criminalizes Zina-bil-jabr, which is defined as rape outside of marriage.
According to the Holy Qu’ran (Sunnah), Zina is punishable by Hadd or tazir. The Hadd punishment is stoning to death, and the tazir punishment for Zina is up to ten years imprisonment and whipping – up to 30 lashes and/or a fine. The tazir punishment for Zina-bil-jabr is up to 25 years imprisonment and whipping up to 30 lashes.[25]
Thousands of women have suffered from the Hudood Ordinance. The legal basis for gender discrimination and punishment of women for asserting their own will and choices was created by the state. The law equates rape with adultery. It requires four adult Muslim male witnesses to prove adultery in cases of rape. This means, in practice, that the law protects rapists. In addition, it excludes the testimony of women and minorities in awarding Hadd punishment. It does not recognize the rape of a minor wife as an offence; removes the legal protection given to children; and makes them liable for punishment of these offences under the law.
According to Dr. Farzana Bari, “Hudood laws are clearly in conflict with the principle of gender equality that is enshrined in Article 25 of the constitution that does not permit discrimination based on sex alone. Despite the fact that women constitute fifty percent of the population, they are not a powerful constituency due to their dependent and subordinate status vis-à-vis men. Their electoral behavior is primarily determined and influenced by the male members of their families.”
The majority of people who have been tried so far under Hudood laws are primarily women. Only women have been awarded the maximum punishment of Zina (adultery) by Pakistan’s male-dominated judiciary system. This included a case of a blind woman raped by her landlord and his sons and sentenced to stoning to death because she was not able to provide male witnesses to prove otherwise.
Statistics on Human Trafficking in Pakistan
Further stated by Dr Bari, “there is hardly any city in Pakistan where brothels or red light areas do not exist”, however no statistics are available either from the Trafficking Report of the US Department of State or from the Federal Investigative Agency (FIR) on human trafficking in Pakistan. This lack of reporting adds emphasis to the need for more direct involvement from the leadership of the government to fight this problem. In the region of Punjab, statistical records are available for a number of criminal acts under investigation by the FIR. These statistics are made available on the Website of Lawyers for Human Rights and Legal Aid (LHRLA).[26] According to the LHRLA, in the first seven months of 2003, the Federal Investigative Agency (FIR) reported that there were 186 episodes of sexual abuse against children, including 103 girls and 83 boys. Of those abused 17 were killed. In the same period, 69 girls and 24 boys were abducted, three of which were raped and sodomized and two kidnapped for ransom. Only six of the 93 children that were abducted were found. Additional statistics are available for adults abducted during this period with a total of two hundred fifty five victims including a reported 16 rapes and 2 cases of kidnappings. Of these 255 adult abductions, six were recovered. According to the FIR, only nine persons were arrested but no convictions were returned in the courts.
The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan also reported that in the first nine months of 2003 there were 128 cases of sexual harassment reported in Punjab with 83 attempted rapes, 36 cases of victims being stripped of their clothing and 10 sexual assaults. There were four arrests with no convictions.
Although the investigators of these statistics do not show any correlation with the statistics noted above, they report that in these same period reports of one thousand one hundred and sixty attempted suicides (430 women and 730 men). Two hundred sixty one women and four hundred forty three men succeeded in their suicide attempts. The leading reason for suicide amongst both sexes was domestic disputes. Other reasons included arranged and forced marriages, illnesses, poverty and financial situations. In reviewing statistics from the last five years, the numbers suggest that cases of harassment, abductions and suicide have leveled off but the cases of rape have more than doubled since General Pervez Musharaff became president of the country.[27]
In Pakistan, victims are primarily of Bangladeshi and Burmese origin, ranging in age from infants to elderly women. Of the many cases actually pursued by the LHRLA, there was a gross violation of basic rights in the case of 16 Bengali women who were arrested when discovered in the custody of a pimp. The police, on discovering them, rather then using them as witnesses against the pimp, arrested them and charged them under the Hudood Ordinance. LHRLA decided to plead their case and as a result, these women were finally acquitted. In another instance, Advocate Zia Ahmed Awan, the President of LHRLA, filed a petition for the release of thirty Bangladeshi women and children from jail. They had been imprisoned for four years on a trafficking charge. The release orders were given on 13 March 1997, and they returned home on March 16.
Bonded Child Labor
Bonded labor takes place when a family receives an advance payment (sometimes as little as U.S. $15) to hand a child—boy or girl—over to an employer. In most cases, the child cannot work off the debt, nor can the family raise enough money to buy the child back. The workplace is often structured so that “expenses” and/or “interest” are deducted from a child’s earnings in such amounts that it is almost impossible for a child to repay the debt (also refer to the story of Masha, p. 11).
In some cases, the labor is generational—that is, a child’s grandfather or great-grandfather was promised to an employer many years earlier, with the understanding that each generation would provide the employer with a new worker—often without pay.
Bonded labor, commonly referred to as debt bondage or peonage, was outlawed by the 1956 U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. Bonded labor in Pakistan continues to be a growing problem today.
Camel Kids (Camel Jockeys)
The tradition of camel racing dates back hundreds of years. However, the jockeys were not children. Poverty, greed and sport have turned young children into valuable commodities. The deceived parents, in the hope of a better future for their children, are unaware of the dangers involved. The jockeys are mostly children from Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Sudan. The age of a camel jockey is between 2 and 10 years old.
Although the victims are just children, the reasons their parents allowed them to be taken is not very different to the same reasons families let their Russian daughters accept invitations to travel outside of their homelands for better futures. The LHRLA decided to investigate further and learned that camel kids had been used for organ transplants and drug trafficking as well. It was revealed that 19,000 children had been taken from rural and coastal areas. The outcry raised by LHRLA, other NGOs and international heads of states put pressure on the UAE to ban the import of camel jockeys; however very little has been done to date.
According to a recent article in the Islamabad News, “due to concerted efforts of the Embassy of Pakistan in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), 86 children were recovered and repatriated to Pakistan in 2002”. In order to curb the illegal business of human trafficking, the UAE government has affected stricter rules to regulate the work of camel jockeys in the popular sport of camel racing. Under the new regulations, children below 15 years of age and 45 kg weight are not allowed to be used as camel jockeys. Strict penalties, including imprisonment, have been laid down for any violation of this law.
Another case of “camel kids” was reported on May 6, 2003 by the Islamabad News about six Pakistani children who were deported from the UAE as illegal immigrants. Two of the children were interviewed in the article. They said that when they were taken to the UAE, they were first afraid of the camels and they used to cry and would not even go near them, but gradually their fears subsided. “Later, we were taught how to ride. Soon we were seen participating in races. The Sheikhs would give us prizes – Dirhams 50 or 100[28] – when we won, or would beat us severely if we lost a race. We never got any salary during our stay of nearly a couple of years. Our father might have received it,” they said.
Their father, Mohammed Siddique, said he met a Sheikh who was visiting Rahimyar Khan for houbara hunting[29]. “I was jobless and had six children – four boys and two girls – I asked him for a job and he offered three jobs – two for my young boys, Irshad and Shakeel, and one for me. The boys would get Dirham 300[30] each and I would get Dirham 400 per month[31], the Sheikh had told me. I, accompanied by my wife Parveen, took my children to the UAE nearly two years back and worked at the Sheikh’s farms near Al-Ain.
I used to look after the camels at the farm and my children started taking part in races. My wife returned home leaving the children, who were entered in her passport. She was caught on her return at the airport here, but after some understanding, she was let go and she went home. Now I have brought my children back,” he claimed. According to one of the fathers, “during our over a couple of years’ stay there, I saw many young children being crushed to death when the camels fell down. I used to pray for the safety of my children as I had seen many being crushed, and luckily during our over stay there, nothing serious happened to them,” he added.
According to various descriptions of camel racing, the child is strapped to the camel with a rope; the camel is whipped into frenzy and further propelled by the petrified shrieks of the confused and frightened child. In this business, where, according to a Newsline article, the preferred weight of jockeys is 19 to 20 kilograms and the limit is 40 kilograms, the younger and lighter the child, and the louder the scream of terror, the greater the speed of the camel. Many children die before the race is over either from fear or from being tossed by the animal or being dragged to death after being partially dislodged from the security rope binding the child to the animal. Prior to 1993, on average, a dozen innocent children lost their lives every week as camel jockeys. Arab Sheiks began purchasing children from Pakistan in the mid-1970s up until the late 1990’s when using young children for the sport were outlawed in the UAE.
NGOs and Human Trafficking
Local, regional and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been at the forefront of efforts to raise awareness of trafficking and to press for accountability. NGOs, particularly local groups, are carrying out desperately needed programs to warn girls and their families of the dangers of trafficking, shelter those who have managed to escape, provide urgent medical and psychological care, assist in repatriation, and press governments to strengthen domestic laws against trafficking.
NGOs in Pakistan have been instrumental in improving protections for trafficking victims, by raising public and official awareness of the trafficking of Bangladeshi women and girls into Pakistan. The Edhi Center in Karachi and Lahore, have helped to bail women out of jail and provide otherwise unavailable shelter to more than a hundred women at a time.[32]
Conclusion
Millions of workers in Pakistan are held in contemporary forms of slavery. Throughout the country, employers force labor from adults and children, restrict their freedom of movement, and deny them the right to negotiate the terms of their employment. Employers coerce such workers into servitude through physical abuse, forced confinement, and debt-bondage. The state offers these workers no effective protection from this exploitation. Although slavery is unconstitutional in Pakistan and violates various national and international laws, state practices support its existence. The state rarely prosecutes or punishes employers who hold workers in servitude. Moreover, workers who contest their exploitation are invariably confronted with police harassment, often leading to imprisonment under false charges, and min may cases punishment under the Hudood Ordinance.
Contemporary forms of slavery, which are set forth and defined in international law, include debt-bondage, serfdom, the trafficking of women, and child servitude. All of these forms of slavery exist in Pakistan. The International Labor Organization (ILO), in its World Labor Report 1993, assessed the problems of debt-bondage in Pakistan to be among the worst in the world. There are no reliable statistics on the number of bonded laborers. While some NGOs estimate that the numbers range into the millions; there is little doubt that at least thousands of persons in Pakistan are held in debt-bondage, many of them children. Bondage is particularly common in the areas of agriculture, brick-making, carpet-weaving, mining, and handicraft production.
Like Russia, this illicit trade in persons is a multibillion-dollar, criminally organized global industry. Traffickers use deception, force or coercion to move people into situations in which they are vulnerable and easily held in conditions of forced labor and slavery. Trafficked persons are often treated as criminals, rather than as victims of crime, while traffickers escape prosecution. Those who try to escape or seek help risk retaliation from traffickers.[33] Moreover, for those that are caught by the authorities they risk being punished under the Hudood Ordinance.
Bibliography (only including footnotes)
- (March 12, 2003) in Article 205, Sec. B of the Model Law to Combat Trafficking in Persons. US Department of State
- Angel Coalition website
- Binoo Sen, National Commission for Women India, Paper on Political Commitment
- CATW - Asia Pacific Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Asia Pacific (Excerpts taken from the Fact book on Global Sexual Exploitation, published by the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women).
- CATW - Asia Pacific, Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Asia Pacific
- Copyright 2002 UN Foundation, UN Wire, April 19, 2002
- Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, US Department of State, March 31, 2003
- Department Of Criminal Investigations, Homicide Division, Moscow Region, St. Petersburg Police. June 1, 2003 St. Petersburg 10:55 pm
- Crisis Center for Women, Institute of Non-Discriminative Gender Interrelations, St. Petersburg June 4, 2003.
10. Estimates by Human Rights organizations in Pakistan, Trafficking in Women and Children: The Cases of Bangladesh, p.14, UBINIG, 1995
11. http://www.hrcp-web.org/women.cfm#
12. http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2003/21262.htm#tiers
13. http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2003/21276.htm
14. Human Rights Watch, 350 Fifth Ave 34th Floor New York, N.Y. 10118
15. Indrani Sinha, SANLAAP India, Paper on Globalization & Human Rights
16. Kyle and Koslowski, 2001
17. Lawyers for Human Rights and Legal Aid are a leading NGO headquartered in Karachi, Pakistan.
18. Masako Iijima, S. Asia urged to unite against child prostitution, Reuters, 19 June 1998
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
20. Nabi Abdullaev, The Moscow Times, 2001-2003
21. Nausheen Ahmed, Rights-South Asia: Slavery Still A Thriving Trade, IPS, 29 December 1997
22. Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons is a Presidential task force under the auspices of the Under Secretary for Global Affairs, US Department of State; CIA reports;
23. President Bill Clinton, October 28, 2000 Victims of Trafficking and Violence Act
24. Russia battles its sex trade, Fred Weir, the Christian Science Monitor, May 15, 2001.
25. Trafficking in Persons Report, US Department of State, Released by the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. June 11, 2003
26. Trafficking in Women and Children: The Cases of Bangladesh, p.8, UBINIG, 1995
27. Tyranny of Hudood Laws, by Dr Farzana Bari. Publication: “The News”. May 14, 2002. [The
28. Websites for the US Department of Justice, the US Department of Health and Human Services, the FBI and CIA, the Department of State’s Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, and the Bureau of Population, Refugees and Migration, United Nations International Children’s Fund, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the International Organization for Migration, Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, the Protection Project, Anti-Slavery International and many others.
29. Without a law, sexy slavery flourishes, Nabi Abdullaev, The Moscow Times, June 15, 2003.
[1] Indrani Sinha, SANLAAP India, “Paper on Globalization & Human Rights”
[2] Trafficking in Women and Children: The Cases of Bangladesh, p.8, UBINIG, 1995
[3] CATW - Asia Pacific, Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Asia Pacific
[4] Estimates by Human Rights organizations in Pakistan, Trafficking in Women and Children: The Cases of Bangladesh, p.14, UBINIG, 1995
[5] Masako Iijima, “S. Asia urged to unite against child prostitution,” Reuters, 19 June 1998
[6] Indrani Sinha, SANLAAP India, “Paper on Globalization & Human Rights”
[7] “Rights-South Asia: Slavery Still A Thriving Trade,” IPS, 29 December 1997
[8] Zia Ahmed Awan, affiliate with Lawyers for Human Rights and Legal Aid, Sindh police report in 1993, “Rights-South Asia: Slavery Still A Thriving Trade,” IPS, 29 December 1997
[9] Rights-South Asia: Slavery Still A Thriving Trade, IPS, 29 December 1997
[10] CATW - Asia Pacific, Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Asia Pacific
[11] LHRLA, Indrani Sinha, SANLAAP India, Paper on Globalization & Human Rights
[12] CATW - Asia Pacific, Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Asia Pacific
[13] Sindh police report in 1993, Rights-South Asia: Slavery Still A Thriving Trade, IPS, 29 December 1997
[14] CATW - Asia Pacific, Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Asia Pacific
[15] CATW - Asia Pacific, Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Asia Pacific
[16] Equivalent to $2620 (1 December 2003)
[17] Copyright 2002 UN Foundation, UN Wire, April 19, 2002
[18] Nausheen Ahmed, “Rights-South Asia: Slavery Still A Thriving Trade,” IPS, 29 December 1997
[19] Binoo Sen, National Commission for Women India, “Paper on Political Commitment”
[20] CATW - Asia Pacific ”Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Asia Pacific (Excerpts taken from the Fact book on Global Sexual Exploitation, published by the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women).
[21] Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, US Department of State, March 31, 2003
[22] Trafficking in Persons Report, US Department of State, Released by the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. June 11, 2003
[25] Tyranny of Hudood Laws, by Dr Farzana Bari. Publication: “The News”. May 14, 2002. [The writer is Acting Director, Centre for Women's Studies, Quaid-e-Azam University, and Islamabad]
[26] Lawyers for Human Rights and Legal Aid are a leading NGO headquartered in Karachi, Pakistan.
[28] Equivalent to $13 to $26 as of 1 December 2003.
[29] According to Merriam-Webster, any of a family (Otididae) of large chiefly terrestrial Old World and Australian game birds. Also known as “bustards”.
[30] Equivalent to $82 as of 1 December 2003.
[31] Equivalent to $109 as 1 December 2003.
[32]Human Rights Watch, 350 Fifth Ave 34th Floor New York, N.Y. 10118
[33] The International News, 13 May 2003 Karachi, Pakistan
0.000000
0.000000
